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Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear power industry revival, driven by rising fossil fuel prices and new concerns about meeting greenhouse gas emission limits.〔(The Nuclear Renaissance (by the World Nuclear Association) )〕 However, the World Nuclear Association has reported that nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999.〔 Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years. In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and shutdowns at other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance.〔(Nuclear Renaissance Threatened as Japan’s Reactor Struggles ) Bloomberg, published March 2011, accessed 2011-03-14〕〔(Analysis: Nuclear renaissance could fizzle after Japan quake ) Reuters, published 2011-03-14, accessed 2011-03-14〕〔(Japan nuclear woes cast shadow over U.S. energy policy ) Reuters, published 2011-03-13, accessed 2011-03-14〕〔(Nuclear winter? Quake casts new shadow on reactors ) MarketWatch, published 2011-03-14, accessed 2011-03-14〕〔(Will China's nuclear nerves fuel a boom in green energy? ) Channel 4, published 2011-03-17, accessed 2011-03-17〕 Platts has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world".〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=NEWS ANALYSIS: Japan crisis puts global nuclear expansion in doubt )〕 In 2011 Siemens exited the nuclear power sector following the Fukushima disaster and subsequent changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's planned energy transition to renewable energy technologies. China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants.〔(Israel Prime Minister Netanyahu: Japan situation has "caused me to reconsider" nuclear power ) Piers Morgan on CNN, published 2011-03-17, accessed 2011-03-17〕〔(Israeli PM cancels plan to build nuclear plant ) xinhuanet.com, published 2011-03-18, accessed 2011-03-17〕 Countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035. The World Nuclear Association has reported that “nuclear power generation suffered its biggest ever one-year fall through 2012 as the bulk of the Japanese fleet remained offline for a full calendar year”. Data from the International Atomic Energy Agency showed that nuclear power plants globally produced 2346 TWh of electricity in 2012 – seven per cent less than in 2011. The figures illustrate the effects of a full year of 48 Japanese power reactors producing no power during the year. The permanent closure of eight reactor units in Germany was also a factor. Problems at Crystal River, Fort Calhoun and the two San Onofre units in the USA meant they produced no power for the full year, while in Belgium Doel 3 and Tihange 2 were out of action for six months. Compared to 2010, the nuclear industry produced 11% less electricity in 2012. ==Overview== Various barriers to a nuclear renaissance have been suggested. These include: unfavourable economics compared to other sources of energy,〔〔 slowness in addressing climate change,〔 industrial bottlenecks and personnel shortages in the nuclear sector,〔 and the contentious issue of what to do with nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel.〔〔George Monbiot ("Nuclear vs Nuclear vs Nuclear" ), The Guardian, February 2, 2012〕 There are also concerns about more nuclear accidents, security, and nuclear weapons proliferation.〔Trevor Findlay. (The Future of Nuclear Energy to 2030 and its Implications for Safety, Security and Nonproliferation ) February 4, 2010.〕〔〔M.V. Ramana. Nuclear Power: Economic, Safety, Health, and Environmental Issues of Near-Term Technologies, ''Annual Review of Environment and Resources'', 2009, 34, pp. 144-145.〕〔 New reactors under construction in Finland and France, which were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance,〔 have been delayed and are running over-budget.〔James Kanter. (Is the Nuclear Renaissance Fizzling? ) ''Green'', 29 May 2009.〕〔James Kanter. (In Finland, Nuclear Renaissance Runs Into Trouble ) ''New York Times'', May 28, 2009.〕〔Rob Broomby. (Nuclear dawn delayed in Finland ) ''BBC News'', 8 July 2009.〕 China has 32 new reactors under construction,〔(Nuclear Power in China )〕 and there are also a considerable number of new reactors being built in South Korea, India, and Russia. At the same time, at least 100 older and smaller reactors will "most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years".〔Michael Dittmar. (Taking stock of nuclear renaissance that never was ) ''Sydney Morning Herald'', August 18, 2010.〕 So the expanding nuclear programs in Asia are balanced by retirements of aging plants and nuclear reactor phase-outs. In the 2009 ''World Energy Outlook'', the International Energy Agency stated that:
As of July 2013, "a total of 437 nuclear reactors were operating in 30 countries, seven fewer than the historical maximum of 444 in 2002. Since 2002, utilities have started up 28 units and disconnected 36 including six units at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan. The current world reactor fleet has a total nominal capacity of about 370 gigawatts (or thousand megawatts). Despite seven fewer units operating in 2013 than in 2002, the capacity is still about 7 gigawatts higher". The numbers of new operative reactors, final shutdowns and new initiated constructions according to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in recent years are as follows:〔IAEA Pris. (Power reactor information system )〕 Annual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing 1.8% in 2009 to 2558 TWh with nuclear power meeting 13-14% of the world's electricity demand.〔〔(Nuclear decline set to continue, says report ) ''Nuclear Engineering International'', 27 August 2009.〕 A major factor in the decrease has been the prolonged repair of seven large reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant in Japan following the Niigata-Chuetsu-Oki earthquake.〔World Nuclear Association. (Another drop in nuclear generation ) ''World Nuclear News'', 05 May 2010.〕 According to an article in ''The Times'', the world is expected to build 180 nuclear power plants over the next decade, up from only 39 since 1999.〔(Areva rushes to hire workers as demand for nuclear reactors explodes )〕 Sixty-three reactors with a total capacity of 65 GW are by December 2010 under construction, but several carry over from earlier eras; some are partially completed reactors on which work has resumed (e.g., in Argentina); some are small and experimental (e.g., Russian floating reactors); and some have been on the IAEA’s “under construction” list for years (e.g., in India and Russia).〔 Reactor projects in Eastern Europe are essentially replacing old Soviet reactors shut down due to safety concerns. Most of the current activity ― 30 reactors ― is taking place in four countries: China, India, Russia and South Korea. Iran is the only country which is currently building its first power reactor, but construction began decades ago.〔Trevor Findlay (2010). (The Future of Nuclear Energy to 2030 and its Implications for Safety, Security and Nonproliferation: Overview ), The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, pp. 10-11.〕 A study by UBS, reported on April 12, 2011, predicts that around 30 nuclear plants may be closed world-wide, with those located in seismic zones or close to national boundaries being the most likely to shut.〔 The analysts believe that 'even pro-nuclear countries such as France will be forced to close at least two reactors to demonstrate political action and restore the public acceptability of nuclear power', noting that the events at Fukushima 'cast doubt on the idea that even an advanced economy can master nuclear safety'.〔(Nucléaire : une trentaine de réacteurs dans le monde risquent d'être fermés ) Les Échos, published 2011-04-12, accessed 2011-04-15〕 In September 2011, German engineering giant Siemens announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan. The 2011 World Energy Outlook report by the International Energy Agency stated that having "second thoughts on nuclear would have far-reaching consequences" and that a substantial shift away from nuclear power would boost demand for fossil fuels, putting additional upward pressure on the price of energy, raising additional concerns about energy security, and making it more difficult and expensive to combat climate change.〔International Energy Agency ("World Energy Outlook 2011" ), International Energy Agency 2011〕 The reports suggests that the consequences would be most severe for nations with limited local energy resources and which have been planning to rely heavily on nuclear power for future energy security, and that it would make it substantially more challenging for developing economies to satisfy their rapidly increasing demand for electricity.〔 John Rowe, chair of Exelon (the largest nuclear power producer in the US), has said that the nuclear renaissance is "dead". He says that solar, wind and cheap natural gas have significantly reduced the prospects of coal and nuclear power plants around the world. Amory Lovins says that the sharp and steady cost reductions in solar power has been a "stunning market success". In 2013 the analysts at the investment research firm Morningstar, Inc. concluded that nuclear power was not a viable source of new power in the West. On nuclear renaissance they wrote:
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